Resources for the Teaching of Social Psychology

Confessions and Interrogations

"It's time for police to stop lying to suspects" - An opinion piece in the New York Times

Best practices for investigative interviewing - Sonja Brubacher talks about her work to improve interviewing techniques.

Police interrogation - This article takes you through historical methods of interrogation up to the newer ones proposed or used now.

The Central Park Jogger case - a brief review of the case and the interrogation techniques used to draw the false confessions

False confessions, lie detection, and mental illness - This article reviews some research presented at the APS convention.

You can be led to falsely believe you committed a crime - Yes, I mean you. "New research provides lab-based evidence for this phenomenon, showing that innocent adult participants can be convinced, over the course of a few hours, that they had perpetrated crimes as serious as assault with a weapon in their teenage years. The research, published in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, indicates that the participants came to internalize the stories they were told, providing rich and detailed descriptions of events that never actually took place." [added 8/6/15]

"Rapport-building interrogation more effective than torture" - I tried to tell my mom that.... Just kidding, mom! [added 8/4/15]

The science of interrogation - [added 8/4/15]

Videotaping interrogations - Blog entry reviews some recent research and discussion of the pros and cons of such videotaping. [added 8/4/15]

A case of false confession in Iceland - "The BBC News site has a special multimedia feature on a case of false confession to murder that has been troubling Iceland from the 1970s and has recently erupted again." [added 8/4/15]

The truth of two-person interrogation - interesting research on a two-person (one interviews while the other takes notes) interrogation [added 2/19/14]

False confessions - This brief article reviews some research on false confessions. [added 1/29/12]

False confessions and eyewitness misidentifications - [added 8/21/11]

Why do people confess to crimes they didn't commit? - This article provides a good overview of this question. [added 12/23/10]

Coerced confessions - good blog entry about some of the problems with confessions [added 7/18/10]

"The ominous power of confession" - This blog entry discusses an article which describes "125 proven cases of wrongful conviction in the US justice system where the accused made a false confession." [added 2/13/10]

"The psychology and power of false confessions" - a very good article in the APS Observer [added 1/19/10]

Interrogation and false confessions - This interesting study "compares two types of interrogation technique and found that it is so-called 'minimising' questions and remarks - those that downplay the seriousness of the offence, and which blame other people or circumstances - that are the most likely to lead to a false confession." [added 4/14/08]

"The false confession" - an article from Psychology Today [added 12/31/06]

Forced confessions: "Why do people confess to crimes they did not commit? And what can be done to stop it?" - a brief article by Elaine Cassel [added 3/23/04]

Jurors and Juries

“Do you want more men or more women on your criminal jury?” - This blog post discusses new research on the topic.

Will jurors use genetic background of defendants to lessen their guilt or sentence? - some of the first research to look at this question

#1 rated new TV show in U.S.? Jury consultant "Bull" - This real-life jury consultant reflects on the problems with the TV portrayal of a character many of your students might watch. I know, crazy right? After TV is spot-on with its portrayal of every other group in society, this would be the one it gets wrong!

Slow-motion video increases jurors' belief that an act is intentional - fascinating and scary research

Jurors are identifying as multiracial more frequently

"How do you keep older jurors invested in your case?"

Responding to juror holdouts - Interesting study found that if the one holdout juror was a MALE and expressed anger the other jurors started doubting their original position. However, if the holdout was FEMALE and expressed anger the other jurors became more confident in their original judgments.

Changing political ideology of jurors - interesting review of recent research on how jurors are describing themselves

"How jurors can be misled by... - emotional testimony and gruesome photos"

"The effect of eyeglasses on juror decisions" - Insert some "justice is blind" joke here. [added 8/6/15]

Empowering rather than numbing jurors - interesting research [added 8/4/15]

How juries respond to different female Muslim head coverings - [added 8/4/15]

Jury humor - [added 8/4/15]

Effects of pre-trial media on jurors - [added 2/19/14]

How race can influence jury selection - as illustrated in the George Zimmerman murder trial [added 8/20/13]

"Illegal racial discrimnation in jury selection" - a 2010 report from the Equal Justice Initiative [added 7/5/12]

Death-qualified juries - Since a growing number of people oppose the death penalty, and those who oppose it are often kicked off juries considering it, are such juries unfair to the defendents? [added 1/29/12]

Wishing versus believing - This blog entry describes some interesting research that compared what people wish for versus what they believe. "The study recruited subjects who believed that child home care was superior to day care. Half of the subject were conflicted about the issue and indicated that they intended to use day care for their children. The subjects were motivated to believe that day care was as good as home care. The un-conflicted group indicated that they intended to use only home care. The subjects were given two fictional studies. Half the subjects were led to believe study 1 favored day care and study 2 home care; the other half of the subjects were led to believe the opposite for studies 1 and 2. After reading the studies, the subjects evaluated which of the two studies provided more valid conclusions, listed the strengths and weaknesses and evaluated the persuasiveness of each study. The subjects’ last task was to evaluate which form of childcare would have a better effect on child development. The results of the study dramatically showed subjects were more persuaded by scientific evidence that confirmed what they wished to be true than what they initially believed to be true." [added 8/21/11]

The psychology of voir dire - a good, detailed article on the topic [added 12/23/10]

Stereotypes and peremptory challenges - "Rather than denying the existence of stereotyping or asking people to continually suppress a basic human instinct, there is a better way to help reduce demographic profiling in forbidden areas. The simple answer is to increase the time for voir dire and utilize jury questionnaires." [added 10/23/10]

Race salience and juries - This blog entry briefly describes some research from Sam Sommers and points to an article of his in which he points to some misconceptions in our understanding of race bias and juries. [added 10/23/10]

Sharing initial preferences - This blog entry summarizes the research by recommending "don't start group discussions by sharing initial preferences." Why, what happens? Nope, not going to tell you. You have to go read it. [added 7/14/10]

Racial biases in memory of judges and juries - "In this article, I claim that judges and jurors unknowingly misremember case facts in racially biased ways. Drawing upon studies from implicit social cognition, human memory research, and legal decisionmaking, I argue that implicit racial biases affect the way judges and jurors encode, store, and recall relevant case facts." [added 1/19/10]

A fascinating case of possible juror bias - Sam Sommers, in his always interesting blog, Science of Small Talk, relates a fascinating tale: "In November of 2006, a Cape Cod jury returned a guilty verdict in the murder trial of Christopher McCowen. This was supposed to be the final chapter in a murder drama that had captured attention regionally and nationally. But within days of the verdict, three different jurors came forward with concerns about the jury's verdict as well as the process by which it was reached. These concerns would serve as the impetus for an extraordinarily rare legal hearing in which the jurors from the case were called back to the courthouse more than one year after the verdict. One-by-one, they would take the stand and answer questions about what had transpired in the jury room. Specifically, the hearing examined whether particular jurors had made racially biased statements during deliberations, and, if they had, whether such statements had influenced the trial's outcome."

At the end of the above blog entry click on "To be continued" to .... continue. Currently, there are three installments. Here is the fourth and final segment. As you will read, Sam also appeared in court in this case as an expert witness. I love the first question he was asked as he describes it: "First question from Mr. O'Keefe during my cross-examination: "Doctor, do you mind if I ask you how old you are?" My reply: "Sure, as long as I can ask you the same question in return." That relates to my first question for Sam: Did you wear the glasses in court (as opposed to going sans glasses in your blog photo) to appear younger, more authoritative, or both?

Lots of possible uses for this well-told story in your course. [added 4/25/09]

A variety of articles - Read a number of good articles on topics such as obstacles to jury diversity and ethical issues in racial profiling from the online magazine Jury Expert, including one from Sam Sommers. [added 4/25/09]

A poll on juries and jury duty - This blogger addresses this new survey through the "lens of race." [added 4/7/08]

"Juror attitudes and biases in sexual assault cases" - a report from the Australian Institute of Criminology [added 12/11/07]

Juries coming to Japan - I didn't know Japan didn't have juries. They will starting in 2009 according to this fascinating story, and they are going through some very interesting cultural adjustments. [added 11/21/07]

"To persuade jurors...confuse them?" - "If you want to persuade jurors, you must be clear, right? Maybe not. New research shows that a sales pitch is more persuasive when it confuses the customer." [added 11/21/07]

State-by-state juror information - state-by-state links to information given to jurors in each state and information about jurors in some cases -- lots of interesting material [added 11/10/07]

Spotting UFO jurors - Interesting essay, "On better jury selection: Spotting UFO jurors before they enter the jury room," describes what was learned from "initially silent prospective jurors" and how they learned it. [added 12/31/06]

Lying and Lie Detection

"Humans are pretty lousy lie detectors"

“Under time pressure, people tell us what we want to hear”

Lie detection approach foiled by made-up alibi - Using the idea that lying is more mentally demanding than telling the truth, techniques using speed of response are used to detect lying. This research suggests that that technique can be beaten.

Liars, lies, and lying - summary of a few studies

How to tell if someone is lying - some suggestions from experts

An update on lying and lying research

Do you need to see someone's whole face to detect deception? - Apparently not. In fact, you might be more accurate if you can just see a person's eyes.

"Response times do not imply accurate unconscious lie detection" - A recent study using IAT techniques suggested our unconscious mind could detect lying when our conscious mind could not. A reanalysis of the data brings this conclusion into question.

False confessions, lie detection, and mental illness - This article reviews some research presented at the APS convention.

The power of self-deception - When participants were "accidentally" given the answers on a first test, they predicted they would do better than a control group predicted for its performance on a second test even though no answers were available this time around. [added 8/6/15]

P300s: The new lie-detection signal? - Are we getting close to lie detection through reading people's brainwaves? [added 8/4/15]

"Women trust more than men after a deception" - and some other related findings [added 8/4/15]

Everyday liars and prolific liars - "As the researchers say, 'it is normal for people to tell a few lies, and many lies are minor transgressions or simply efforts to avoid being hurtful'. The prolific liar (whether in the US or the UK) operates outside the norms for lying and thus needs to be studied separately." Read about how they distinguish the two, and how they are different. [added 8/4/15]

The real secret to detecting lies - And it's not microexpressions [added 8/4/15]

Why is it so hard to detect lying? - [added 7/5/12]

Detecting artful dodging - Can you tell when someone is dodging a question, in the courtroom or elsewhere? This interesting article applies inattentional blindness research to explain why we sometimes don't recognize the dodge. [added 1/29/12]

Lie detection through drawings - Very cool study -- "Aldert Vrij's new study involved 31 police and military participants going on a mock mission to pick up a package from another agent before delivering it somewhere else. Afterwards the participants answered questions about the mission. Crucially, they were also asked to draw the scene of the package pick-up. Half the participants acted as truth-tellers, the others played the part of liars. Vrij's team reasoned that clever liars would visualise a location they'd been to, other than where the exchange took place, and draw that. They further reasoned that this would mean they'd forget to include the agent who participated in the exchange. This thinking proved shrewd: liars indeed tended not to draw the agent, whereas truth-tellers did. In fact, 80 per cent of truth tellers and 87 per cent of liars could be correctly classified on the basis of this factor alone." [added 7/19/10]

Eyewitness Testimony

Sleep did not improve eyewitness memory accuracy

Creating accurate police sketches from eyewitness testimony - One condition in these studies, the one that comes closest to what happens in the real world, asked participants for their testimony two days after witnessing an incident, and with a 30-minute delay between giving the testimony and starting a sketch. Those delays led to the least accurate likenesses.

Eyewitness memory - a few good articles on the topic from APS

Resolving the he said/she said dilemma - In reference to the recent U.S. Supreme Court nomination hearing, the author reflects on how recent findings could help determine which witness is more credible. In this case, the researchers found that picking up on “effort cues,” such as how long the witness took to provide a description of a suspect, or whether the witness included a lot of filler words in their description, could help someone determine the accuracy of the eyewitness. Generally, the more effort the witness appeared to exhibit in describing what they saw the more accurate they turned out to be.

The category cluster recall technique - to improve eyewitness recall – this research finds it superior to free recall.

How easy is it to implant false memories of committing a crime?

Guilt by association: Eyewitness testimony - "Does presenting a picture along with a question like 'is this the person who did it?' create an association between those two things that could then cause an eyewitness to later falsely remember seeing that person doing that action?"

"Eyewitness confidence can predict accuracy of identifications"

"Face-matching is harder than we realised" - It is not easy to compare a person's live face and a picture of that person. Ask an eyewitness or a passport checker.

Apparently, London's Metropolitan Police super-recognizers are just that - A while back I mentioned an article about how the Metropolitan Police were now using detectives who were identified as being quite good at identifying faces from photographs (super-recognizers). This new article describes research published in Applied Cognitive Psychology which found they were the real deal.

"The detectives who never forget a face" - Fascinating article about a special unit of "super-recognizers" in the London police force

Easy to implant false memories? No, says new review

The perils of eyewitness identification - An attorney discusses how psychological knowledge about the frailty of human memory is often not allowed into the courtroom through expert witnesses. Here and here are replies by other attorneys. [added 8/4/15]

"Anxiety limits our ability to discriminate faces and speech" - Which researchers suggest can be another source of fallibility in eyewitness testimony [added 2/19/14]

"Super-recognizer officers policing Europe's biggest party" - "But more recently, it was discovered that a tiny minority of people are ‘super recognisers’ – with exceptional face recognition abilities – meaning they can pick out a previously identified face from huge numbers of possibilities." [added 2/19/14]

Using forensic psychology to teach about eyewitness memory and lie detection - This excellent article from the Teaching of Psychology updates what we know about these topics. [added 8/20/13]

"Drunk eyewitnesses are more reliable than expected" - Du.. Wait... what?? [added 8/20/13]

"Your memory of events is distorted within seconds" - Blog entry describes some clever studies illustrating how quickly we modify our memories of events. [added 7/5/12]

"34 years later, Supreme Court will revisit eyewitness IDs" - an article from The New York Times [added 1/29/12]

Eyewitness testimony -- a case - Once again, Sam Sommers provides us with a fascinating essay detailing his personal involvement in a trial as an expert witness on eyewitness testimony. The above link is to Part 1 of the saga; here is a link to Part 2; here is a link to the third and final segment. [added 12/23/10]

Landmark report on eyewitness identification - "Now, a cutting-edge report commissioned by the Supreme Court of New Jersey recommends major changes to bring the courts into alignment with the current state of the science on eyewitness testimony." [added 10/24/10]

Eyewitness accuracy - I didn't know that Dan Simon of the inattentional blindness gorilla fame has a blog. But he does. I'm sure you are just as fascinated as I am. But anyway, this blog entry is about a staged television crime and the accuracy of their eyewitnesses. [added 7/18/10]

Being "certain": The case of Donald Cotton - I remember the case of Donald Cotton who was falsely accused of rape by a woman who was "100% sure." Sam Sommers now tells us about how the two of them have teamed up on a book, Picking Cotton, about the whole experience. [added 4/25/09]

Brain waves distinguish false memories from real ones - [added 12/21/07]

The doctrinal paradox - What is it? For example, "a jury might acquit or convict someone while knowing their decision doesn't conform to the letter of the law." This blog provides a good summary of a research article investigating it. [added 12/21/07]

Life and career of Elizabeth Loftus - a good report from the 2007 APS convention based on an interview with Elizabeth Loftus [added 11/10/07]

"Recent advances in false memory research" - a good report from the 2007 APS convention [added 11/10/07]

Problems with face-composite systems - "Thousands of police departments use face composite software to help create a picture of crime suspects. You've probably seen one of the systems in use on TV: witnesses build a picture of the suspect by choosing each individual facial feature -- hair, eyes, nose, and so on. But what happens when the suspect is captured and the witness is asked to identify the real perpetrator in a lineup? Does the witness remember the actual face they saw at the crime scene, or the composite face created at the police station? A recent study has found that the process of creating a face composite can have a dramatic impact on the memory of a real face." Here is the original research article. [added 12/31/06]

"Did Texas execute an innocent man?" - See the role eyewitness testimony played in the conviction. [added 7/6/06]

Mistaken Identity - The article includes a video activity in which you get a chance to see if you can identify the right person in a lineup. [added 7/6/06]

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"A challenge to research on eyewitness testimony" - a brief article by Elaine Cassel on a ruling by a New York judge [added 3/23/04]

"Eyewitness Evidence: A Guide for Law Enforcement" - from the U.S. Dept. of Justice (1999)

"Innocence Lost: The Plea" - PBS Frontline show on the case of preschool workers in North Carolina accused of child sexual abuse

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DNA Evidence

“DNA evidence versus cognitive bias” - fascinating account of how law enforcement often pursued the wrong suspect despite advances in DNA evidence

Jurors, DNA evidence, and the CSI effect - [added 7/17/09]

DNA Evidence - "Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science: Case Studies in the Use of DNA Evidence to Establish Innocence After Trial" (1996) - report from the Dept. of Justice

DNA Easy - "DNA Testing: An Introduction For Non-Scientists: An Illustrated Explanation" by Donald Riley, (1998), from Scientific Testimony, an online journal

Articles, Books, and Book Chapters (available online)

Book Chapters

Carlsmith, K. M., & Darley, J. M. (2008). Psychological aspects of retributive justice. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 41.

Lassiter, G.D., Geers, A.L., Munhall, P.J., Handley, I.M, & Beers, M.J. (2001). Videotaped confessions: Is guilt in the eye of the camera. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 33.

Memon, A. Cronin, O, Eaves, R. and Bull, R. (1996) An empirical test of the 'mnemonics components' of the Cognitive Interview. In: G.M. Davies, S. Lloyd-Bostock, M. McMurran and C. Wilson (eds.) Psychology. Psychology and Law: Advances in Research. Berlin: De Gruyter.

Olson, E. A. & Wells, G. L. (2002). Eyewitness testimony. Annual Review Psychology, 54:277-295.

Wells, G. L. & Loftus, E. F. (2002). Eyewitness memory for people and events. In A. Goldstein, Ed. Comprehensive handbook of psychology, 11, Forensic psychology. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Articles

Baron, J. (1995). Blind justice: Fairness to groups and the do-no-harm principle. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 8, 71-83.

Baron, J. & Beattie, J. (1995). In-kind vs. out-of-kind penalties: preference and valuation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 1, 136-151.

Baron, J. & Ritov, I. (1993). Intuitions about penalties and compensation in the context of tort law. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 7, 17-33.

Deffenbacher, K. A.; Bornstein, B. H.; Penrod, S. D. & McGorty, K. (2004). A meta-analytic review of the effects of high stress on eyewitness memory. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 687-706.

Fein, S., Morgan, S. J., Norton, M. I., & Sommers, S. R. (1997). Hype and suspicion: Effects of pretrial publicity, race, and suspicion on jurors’ verdicts. Journal of Social Issues, 53, 487-502.

Foxhall, K. (2000). Suddenly, a big impact on criminal justice. Monitor on Psychlogy, Volume 31, No. 1.

Hasel, L. E. & Kassin, S. M. (2009) On the presumption of evidentiary independence: Can confessions corrupt eyewitness identifications? Psychological Science, 21, 122-126.

Summary of the research

Holmgren, J. A., & Fordham, J. (2011). The CSI Effect and the Canadian and the Australian jury. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 56, Supplement s1, S63-71.

Hope, L., Lewinski, W., Dixon, J., Blocksidge, D., & Gabbert, F. (2012). Witnesses in action: The effect of physical exertion on recall and recognition. Psychological Science, 23, 386-390.

Press release about the research

Online article about the research

Kassin, S. M., & Sommers, S. R. (1997). Inadmissible testimony, instructions to disregard, and the jury: Substantive versus procedural considerations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 1046-1054.

Lassiter, G.D., Geers, A.L., Handley, I.M, Weiland, P.E., Munhall, P.J. (2002). Videotaped interrogations and confessions: A simple change in camera perspective alters verdicts in simulated trials. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 867-874.

Loftus, G.R. (2010). What can a perception-memory expert tell a jury? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 17, 143-148.

Memon, A., Holley, A., Wark, L., Bull, R., & Koehnken, G. (1997). Eyewitness performance in Cognitive and Structured Interviews. Memory, 5, 639-655.

Memon, A., Holley, A., Wark, L., Bull, R., & Koehnken, G. (1996). Reducing suggestibility in child witness interviews. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 503-518.

MÃ¼nsterberg, H. (1908/1927). "On the witness stand: Essays on psychology and crime".

Norton, M. I., Sommers, S. R., & Brauner, S. (2007). Bias in jury selection: Justifying prohibited peremptory challenges. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 20, 467-479.

Olson, E. A. & Wells, G. L. (2003). Distorted retrospective eyewitness reports as functions of feedback and delay. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 9, 42-52.

Olson, E. A. & Wells, G. L. (2004). What makes a good alibi? A proposed taxonomy. Law and Human Behavior, 28, 157-176.

Philip ,

Petter

Christian Balkenius,

Michael J. Spivey,

and Daniel C. Richardson

Pärnamets, P., Johansson, P., Balkenius, C., Spivey, M. J., & Richardson, D. C. (2015). Biasing moral decisions by exploiting the dynamics of eye gaze. PNAS, 112, 4170-4175.

Blog entry about the research

Ross, D.F., Benton, T.R., McDonnell, S., Metzgerr, R., & Silver, C. (2007). When accurate and inaccurate eyewitnesses look the same: A limitation of the ‘pop-out’ effect and the 10- to 12-second rule. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 677-690.

Shariff, A. F., Greene, J. D., Karremans, J. C., Luguri, J. B., Clark, C. J., Schooler, J. W., & ... Vohs, K. D. (2014). Free will and punishment: A mechanistic view of human nature reduces retribution. Psychological Science, 25, 1563-1570.

Online article about the research

Shelton, D., Kim, Y., & Barak, G. (2007). A study of juror expectations and demands concerning scientific evidence: Does the "CSI Effect" exist? Vanderbilt Journal of Entertainment & Technology Law, 9, 331-368.

Article about the research by the lead author

Skagerberg, E.M. & Wright, D.B. (2009). Susceptibility to postidentification feedback is affected by source credibility. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23, 506-523.

video clip used in study

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Smalarz, L, Madon, S., Yang, Y., Guyll, M., & Buck, S. (2016). The perfect match: Do criminal stereotypes bias forensic evidence analysis? Law and Human Behavior, 40, 420-429.

blog entry on the research

Smalarz, L., Scherr, K. C., & Kassin, S. M. (2016). Miranda at 50: A psychological analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25, 455-460.

Smith, L. L., Bull, R., & Holliday, R. (2011). Understanding juror perceptions of forensic evidence: Investigating the impact of case context on perceptions of forensic evidence strength. Journal of Forensic Science, 56, 409-414.

Sommers, S. R. (2007). Race and the decision-making of juries. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 12, 171-187.

Sommers, S. R., & Douglass, A. B. (2007). Context matters: Alibi strength varies according to evaluator perspective. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 12, 41-54.

Sommers, S. R., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2000). Race in the courtroom: Perceptions of guilt and dispositional attributions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1367-1379.

View trial materials for Study 1; for Study 2

Sommers, S. R., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2001). White juror bias: An investigation of racial prejudice against Black defendants in the American courtroom. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7, 201-229.

View trial materials

Sommers, S. R., & Kassin, S. M. (2001). On the many impacts of inadmissible testimony: Selective compliance, need for cognition, and the overcorrection bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 1368-1377.

Sommers, S. R., & Norton, M. I. (2007). Race-based judgments, race-neutral justifications: Experimental examination of peremptory use and the Batson challenge procedure. Law and Human Behavior, 31, 261-273.

Blog entry about the research

Sommers, S. R., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Race and jury selection: Psychological perspectives on the peremptory challenge debate. American Psychologist, 63, 527-539.

Spencer, B.D. (2007). Estimating the accuracy of jury verdicts. Journal of Empirical Legal Studies, 4, 305-329.

Blog entry about the research

Vidmar, N. (1998). The performance of the American civil jury: An empirical perspective. Arizona Law Review, 40, 849-900. [added 11/18/07]

Wells, G.L. & Bradfield, A.L. (1999). Distortions in eyewitnesses' recollections: Can the postidentification-feedback effect be moderated? Psychological Science, 10, 138-144.

Wells, G. L., Malpass, R. S., Lindsay, R.C.L., Fisher, R. P., Turtle, J. W., & Fulero, S. M. (2000). From the lab to the police station: A successful application of eyewitness research. American Psychologist, 55, 581-598.

Wells, G. L., Memon, A., & Penrod, S. D., (2006). Eyewitness evidence: Improving its probative value. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7, 45-75.

Wells, G. L., Olson, E. A. & Charman, S. D. (2002). The confidence of eyewitnesses in their identifications from lineups. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 151-154.

Wegner, D. M., Swann, W. B., Jr., & Giuliano, T. (1982). Where leading questions can lead: The power of conjecture in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 1025-1035.

Wright, D. B., Gabbert, F., Memon, A., & London, K. (2008). Changing the criterion for memory conformity in free recall and recognition. Memory, 16, 137-148.

Wright, D. B., Gaskell, G. D., & O'Muircheartaigh, C. A. (1997). The reliability of subjective reports of memory. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 9, 313-323.

Wright, D. B., & Hall, M. (2007). How a “reasonable doubt” instruction affects decisions of guilt. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29, 85-92.

Wright, D. B., Mathews, S., A. & Skagerberg, E. M. (2005). Social recognition memory: The effect of other people's responses for previously seen and unseen items. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11, 200-209.

Wright, D. B., & McDaid, A. T. (1996). Comparing system and estimator variables using data from real line-ups. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 75-84.

Wright, D.B., Memon, A., Skagerberg, E.M., & Gabbert, F. (2009). When eyewitnesses talk. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18, 174-178.

Wright, D. B., & Osborne, J. E. (2005). Dissociation, cognitive failures, and working memory. American Journal of Psychology, 118, 103-113.

Wright, D. B., Ost, J., & French, C. C. (2006). Ten years after: What we know now that we didn’t know then about recovered and false memories. Psychologist, 19, 352-355.

Wright, D. B., & Skagerberg, E. M. (2007). Post-identification feedback affects real eyewitnesses. Psychological Science, 18, 172-178.

Wright, D. B., Startup, H. M., & Mathews, S. A. (2005). Mood, dissociation, and false memories using the Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm. British Journal of Psychology, 96, 283-293.

Wright, D. B., Varley, S., & Belton, A. (1996). Accurate second guesses in misinformation studies. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 13-22.

Wright, D. B., & Wareham, G. (2005). Mixing sound and vision: The interaction of auditory and visual information for earwitnesses of a crime scene. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 10, 103-108.

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